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But other scholars debated the conclusions to be drawn about Kaminaljuyú. And as regards the lowlands, it was widely asserted that the Maya, independent and self-sufficient, had merely appropriated symbols of prestige and legitimacy from Teotihuacan.

The Teotihuacan imagery is unmistakable in this detail from the shield carried by the figure on the side of Tikal Stela 31. Note the "goggles" around the eyes. Photo: Mark Van Stone.